This is Part 3 of a series on the great Pullman Strike of 1894:
Part 1 is here.
Part 2 (The government has obtained a sweeping injunction against, basically, everything that the union ever thought of doing, including persuading workers)
You can have an injunction, but someone has to enforce it. There were tens of thousands of strikers and sympathizers, but only a few hundred police. A number of unemployed people were deputized, but they were quickly seen as worse than useless. “Send in the troops” became the establishment consensus.
Blue Island (Chicago suburbs)
This is the New York Times, July 2.
DEPUTIES OVERAWED BY STRIKERS
Mob at Blue Island in control of Rock Island Tracks. -
CHICAGO, July 2.—The striking railroad men and sympathizing citizens of Blue Island derided and defied an injunction issued by the United States court today, and treated 300 law officers of the State and Federal Governments in the same manner.
Tonight the mob is in undisputed possession of the property of the Rock Island Railroad Company. The employes of the brickyard in this vicinity, numbering 1,000 men, will be on strike tomorrow in sympathy with the American Railway Union boycott and the Rock Island strikers particularly. Most of the brickyard men went out tonight, and will increase the size and danger of the mob tomorrow morning.
The force of Special Deputy Marshals and Sheriffs sent here are pronounced by their commanders practically useless and by the strikers arrant cowards, hiding behind cars and in them for fear of being hurt.
The people of the town and the authorities have conspired not only to render all the aid in their power to the strikers without getting in the meshes of the law, but also to starve the civil officers by refusing them food and threatening to boycott anyone who supplies it.
Early in the day the mob became riotous, and only the discretion displayed by United States Marshal Arnold and Chief Deputy Liebrandt prevented a bloody conflict between the forces of law and order and those massed here for the purpose of keeping the Rock Island tracks blocked to traffic as long as Pullman cars are run by the railroad company.
The presence of militia or of United States soldiers from Fort Sheridan is requisite to open the Rock Island line and keep it open. [emphasis added]
The strikers have no more respect for the authority of the Deputy Sheriffs and Marshals than they have for the railroad property or the Officials of the company who have been here all day trying to get trains moved. The strikers know that the juvenile special deputies, gathered from anywhere in a haphazard way, are afraid tc use their revolvers.
At 6 o'clock tonight the track of the Rock Island. which is used for suburban traffic in times of peace, was cleared of the string of passenger coaches and baggage cars, after much trouble and and exciting brush with the mob, but it was only kept clear long enough to allow the mail train from Chicago. hauling four coaches, one mail and one baggage car, to proceed on its way west, alter being held there for five hours. No hated Pullman car was attached so the strikers silently allowed it to pass between them.
This train left Blue Island at 6:40, and two hours afterward a gang of 200 strikers quietly gathered on the clear track just west of the station, where they could not be seen by the main body of deputies, who were standing outside the stalled and derailed express trains like so many wooden Indians, or else taking it easy on the seats of the cars.
Half a dozen freight cars stood on the track next to the clear one, presenting a favorable spot for the obstructive and destructive tactics of the strikers.
Only ten Deputy Sheriffs were stationed at this spot to guard property, and they were laughed at. As many strikers as could get a hand on a box car at the end of the string took hold, and at the word all exerted their utmost strength to tip the car on the clear track.
It toppled clean over on its side leaving only one truck on the original track, again closing the line to traffic. When general Superintendent Dunlop heard that the line was blocked again, he said to a reporter for the United Press:
“We cannot open this line in a week without troops. This mob will keep us closed until soldiers are on guard. The trouble is there is no organisation or discipline, and not much bravery among the special deputies sent here. The regular men are alright, but the other fellows mix with the crowd or bunch together because they are afraid to be alone. I know theré are a dozen switchmen who’ve been sworn in as Deputy Marshals.”
“There are only 100 of our striking switchmen in this mob. The rest is made up of switchmen and other railroad strikers from all parts of the city, most of them coming from the Stock Yards. They have continued to keep our road tied up here, and defy all authority. until backed by soldiers. Mayor Zacharias of this place, all the members of the Council, and the whole local police force and private citizens have done all that they could to obstruct traffic.
*The police even attempted to arrest the United States Marshal for keeping the train on the street crossings for over five minutes.”
The injunction issued by Federal Judges Wood and Grosscup restraining all persons from not only interfering with the moving of trains under penalty of punishment for violation of the interstate and commerce law, but prohibiting anyone from persuading anyone to desert trains, was brought to Blue Island on the 11 o’clock mail train by a posse of Deputy Marshals. The sweeping order from the court was handed to United States Marshall Arnold, who called upon the strikers to gather around him and listen.
Three thousand men, women, and children quickly came within sound of his voice. The Marshal stood on a car platform with other officials of the road.
(I love the phrase “who were standing outside the stalled and derailed express trains like so many wooden Indians, or else taking it easy on the seats of the cars. “ I can’t imagine anyone writing that anymore.)
Sacramento
In California there actually were troops. Here’s the Sacramento Bee from July 3.
Great Excitement In Chicago.
The Stock Yards Are Tied Up.
FRESH BEEF LEFT TO SPOIL
A Clash of Arms on the Fourth Possible
Railroads Not Anxious to Make Trouble
TRAINS AND ROADS ABANDONED
The Nickel Plate Road, Among Many Others, Stopped - A Passenger Train Abandoned in a Swamp
Chicago, July 3.—With this morning's dawn opened what is expected to be a day fraught with exciting events befitting the climax of the contest between the great combatants in the great Pullman- American Railway Union strike. Not until the small hours of this morning were yesterday's hostilities suspended, and then for an hour or two, only to wait daylight that they might be renewed with redoubled vigor. All night long from every section west of Pittsburg [Pittsburg in California, not Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania] came reports of strikes, tie-ups; of efforts by the roads, aided by municipal, State and Federal officers to start moving the clogged wheels of commerce, and of the determined resistance of such action on the part of the strikers and their sympathizers.
WHERE INTEREST CENTERS
Interest centers principally on Blue Island. This town is eighteen miles out of Chicago, where traffic on the Chicago, Rock island and Pacific is effectually tied up despite the fact that several United States Deputy Marshals are on hand, they being outnumbered ten to one by the strikers, who are in anything but an amiable frame of mind. Every legal resource has been tried in vain and the United States Marsbals are openly defied. Nothing seems to remain but to invoke aid to get trains moving, and to this end troops are held in readiness at Fort Sheridan.
MARINE ENGINEERS INFECTED.
Even the marine engineers have caught the infection and stand ready, together with the elevated railway men to add their quota to the great army of self-made idlers. What they expect to accomplish, or what assistance they expect to be, in compelling Pullman to submit the differences between himself and his late employes to arbitration, is not clear. The shipment of fuel to this city is seriously embarrassed, as is the movement of every other commodity for that matter. There is, it is said, scarcely a ton of soft coal in the city, although 50,000 tons are burned daily.
There is, however, a great amount of hard coal scattered through the various yards, but this is ruinously expensive means of making steam. Every railroad entering Chicago is seriously crippled. Many of the trunk lines are paralyzed. Traffic has been suspended on some of the lines. The suburban service of the Illinois Central is practically at a standstill.
AN ATTEMPT TO STOP TRAINS
At 6 o'clock tonight an attempt will be made to stop all trains on the Lake street road. This line does not handle Pullman cars, but Mr. Debs has called the fireman out, but the company is using non-union coal for fuel, hauled by the Panhandle road. Troops are being moved to clear the blockade in California and Colorado, but there is a prospect that they will be stopped in transit by engineers who are in sympathy with the strikers. An attempt to move troops from Springfield, Illinois, to Decatur has created a small riot.
GRIEVANCE COMMITTEE IN SESSION
The Grievance Committee of the employes of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad was in session last evening and were visited by a large number of men, employes of the road. "There is no strike on the Milwaukee road," said Chairman Durban, "nor will there be one, until it is ordered by this Committee.
“A year ago, we had strikes all to ourselves and gained what we demanded. Since then we have maintained our road Federation, composed of the Lodges of the regular organizations. We think we are fully able to attend to our part of the business."
MARINE ENGINEERS JOIN HANDS.
Land and water are to join hands in the strike. A deputation of marine engineers visited Ulrich's Hall last night and stated that the local Union here had resolved not to handle a pound of freight hauled by any one of the boycotted roads. He said he had been authorized to give this information by Thomas F. Dowd, President of the local Union.
This is the first offer to pour the Lakes into the controversy, and the Union will consider the matter today and avail themselves of it to suspend freight business and involve shipping on the Lakes.
The marine engineers are examined and licensed men, and if they go out their places cannot be supplied. The Railway Union is much elated over their accession.
NO LIVESTOCK ARRIVES
Today for the the time in the history of the livestock trade in Chicago not a single carload of animals reached the Union Stock Yards by rail. Absolutely the only livestock received was a bunch of thirteen hogs that came in a wagon.
Thousands of packing house employes and other workmen of the packing town were made idle. The Michigan Central tried to make up and start a trainload of dressed beef last night. The trainmen abandoned the cars with short notice, and the beef was left to rot on the tracks.
THE BOYCOTT SPREADING
The Pullman boycott is gradually spreading. The Burlington, which employs non-Union men, is about the only Chicago road not affected. The Chicago and Northwestern, which up to last night had escaped, is completely tied up today. Its suburban traffic is very heavy, and great inconvenience results from the stopping of this branch of business.
The Illinois Central, Erie, Milwaukee and St. Paul and Great Western all report a like condition. A general tie-up at Detroit today stops the Michigan Southern and Michigan Central effectually. The Western Indiana Terminal, over which the Grand Trunk, Chicago and Erie, Wabash, Eastern Illinois, Santa Fe and Monon roads enter the city was handling passenger trains with a reasonable degree of efficiency up to last night. Today all these roads are again in trouble.
A NEW DIFFICULTY.
A new difficulty is presented by the refusal of the engineers and firemen to risk their lives by working with green hands, and the railway managers themselves are not anxious for fighting.
They are exceedingly fearful of precipitating battle on the Fourth of July, and they will make no serious efforts to move trains before Thursday morning. They also say that the suspension of business at this time is not an unmixed evil. "We know perfectly well that the freight is in the country and must move sooner or later," said one today, "and we shall ultimately get ,our share. It will not be long before the inconvenience, resulting from the suspension, will be keenly felt everywhere, and then we believe that public sentiment will be a great factor in the extinction of Debs and his people."
The prices of provisions are advancing very rapidly; fruits, ice and all kinds of perishable property are commanding high prices.
(there’s more. Much more.)
Debs, Pullman, Cleveland, and Olney
(“Cleveland” was Grover Cleveland, the President.)
You’ve seen the newspaper articles bemoaning the failure of other means of combating the strike, and calling for Federal troops. This was a momentous step, and according to some reasoning, e.g. the Posse Comitatus Act, it wasn’t even legal, so Cleveland hesitated. But Attorney General Olney, who was a railroad lawyer,
was insistent. His arguments centered around the issue of the US Mail cars being interfered with, and the boycott’s effect on “interstate commerce.” He won the day, and troops were called out.
Debs, on the other hand, was in what we’d have to call a state of denial. He’d overestimated his own strength, and he just didn’t realize how intransigent and ruthless his opponents were. He thought that the inevitable solution had to be an impartial panel to arbitrate the dispute, like he’d successfully obtained in Minnesota. Surely Pullman would agree to that, right? Debs was defiant.
Let’s look at the Washington Post for July 5, which was certainly expecting a negotiated settlement while they reported on the troops’ first engagements with the mobs.
TALK OF CIVIL WAR
Soldiers' First Shot Will Produce a Revolution.
SO SAYS PRESIDENT DEBS`
Chicago Adds Train-Raiding to its Fourth of July Fun.
CHARGING BAYONETS ON THE MOB
It Is Claimed by the A. R. U. that the Railway Managers Have Misled the Government and Wrongfully Caused the Calling Out of Troops--Probability of a Settlement This Week — Mr. Debs Cares Nothing for Battalions. Injunctions, or Indictments—A Conference to Be Held Today — Intense Excitement Prevailed All Yesterday—Futile Attempts to Move Trains, and Frequent Collisions Between the Soldiers and Strikers, but No Tragedies or Deaths Are Yet Reported.
Chicago, July 4.—"The first shot fired by the regular soldiers at the mobs here will be the signal for a civil war. I believe this as firmly as I believe in the ultimate success of our course. Bloodshed will follow, and 90 per cent of the people of the United States will be arrayed against the other 10 per cent. And I would not care to be arrayed against the laboring people in the contest, or find myself out of the ranks of labor when the struggle ended. I do not say this as an alarmist, but calmly and thoughtfully."
Such were the remarks made by President Eugene V. Debs, of the American Railway Union, to a United Press reporter this afternoon. Mr. Deb had just received news of the trouble at the stock yards and the arrests at Blue Island. He severely condemned the course pursued by the railway managers in misleading the government officials and causing them to order out the regulars to protect trains and overawe the strikers and their sympathizers.
He goes on to predict a general revolution. Pullman, on the other hand, made an effort to appear sanguine. He wasn’t even in Chicago; he was “relaxing” in his New Jersey beach retreat.
“Order out the regulars to protect trains and overawe the strikers and their sympathizers.” is exactly what they did. Besides “the regulars,” Gov. Altgeld (much more on him later) called out the state militia.
Rioting Spreads
Here’s the New York Times for Saturday, July 7:
STRIKERS APPLY THE TORCH
HUNDREDS OF CARS BURNED IN CHICAGO'S VICINITY.
PULLMAN AND KENSINGTON TERRORIZED
Mob of Rioters Fled at the First Approach of Illinois State Soldiers.
TWO OF THE STRIKERS SHOT.
Work of Incendiarism Was First Begun is the Stock Yards, Where Scores of Fires Attested the Lawlessness of the Mob -- The large Crowd then went West to Kensington and Pullman, Where Engines Were Derailed, Switches Destroyed, and Hundreds of Cars Set on Fire—State Militia Ordered Out by Got. Altgeld at the Request of Mayor Hopkins-Pullman Guarded to Resist a Midnight Attack—Chicago Citizens Feel Alarmed.
CHICAGO. July 4.--The town of Pullman is guarded tonight by a company of the State militia, in anticipation of an attack by the mob. The sky is lighted up with the glare of the flames from 2,000 or more freight can that are burning in the Eldson yards on the Grand Trunk Road. A hundred police have gone to the scene with orders to shoot on sight if they are attacked. The loss to the Grand Trunk will be enormous. A mob began work on the Burlington shortly before midnight, burning many car in the yards at Hawthorne. It is thought that several thousand freight cars have been destroyed on the different roads during the day and up to midnight. For the first time since the American Railway Union declared the strike in actual operation a feeling of fear and alarm permeates the entire community.
In business circles it was the one absorbing topic during the day to the exclusion of everything else, while tonight in the residence districts the extras of the evening papers command a premium, and the telephones are besieged with anxious inquirers. It is just such a condition of semi-suppressed alarm and anxiety as Paris experienced in the hours that immediately preceded the initiative demonstration of the commune.
The railroads toward which the animosity of the mob has been mainly directed played a waiting game during the day. The experiences of yesterday had made it certain that no attempt to raise the embargo at the stock yards could be successful without the aid of additional troops, and, as the regulars ordered from Fort Leavenworth, Kan., and Fort Brady, Mich., were delayed until the day was well under way, it was agreed that discretion would be the better pan of valor, and that the stockyards people could better afford to wait a while than to give additional ammunition to the strikers in the shape of a repetition of yesterday's fiasco.
The mob, however, regarded this determination more as a confession of weakness than as a stroke of policy, and, accordingly, it set out to follow up its supposed advantage.
In the stock yards region cars were overturned and at some points fired and switches rendered useless, while half a dozen fires in the immediate region of the yards, all of evident incendiary origin, and some of which might have destroyed property representing millions of dollars but for the prompt service of the local Firs Department, testified to the determination of the lawless element to stop at nothing in its career of riot and destruction. It demonstrated, moreover, that there was method, not to say diplomacy, in its madness, by changing its base of operation to Kensington, a point several miles distant, involving other roads than those of the stockyards district, and a region where an outbreak had least been expected.
Here, almost under the shadow of the gates of Pullman City, it held high carnival, capturing trains, derailing cars, and subjecting the crews and escorting Deputy Marshals to showers of coupling pins. stones, and other missiles.
A special officer who was compelled to shoot in self-defense hit two of the mob and temporarily scared their associates, but later the situation became so threatening that on the request of United States Marshal Arnold a company of regulars was dispatched to the scene upon orders from Gen. Miles. Acting upon the old adage of "Better Late than Never " Mayor Hopkins this morning made a requisition upon Gov. Altgeld for the aid of the State militia, and it was quickly complied with.
(much more)
Altgeld and Cleveland Spar
Governor Peter Altgeld of Illinois was strongly opposed to US troops being used in his state, and told the President so. President Cleveland was unyielding:
The Hon. John P. Altgeld, Governor of Illinois, Springfield, Ill. '
While I am still persuaded that I have neither transcended my authority or duty in the emergency that confronts us, it seems to me that in this hour of danger and public distress, discussion may well give way to active effort on the part of all in authority to restore obedience to law and to protect life and property.
GROVER CLEVELAND.
Translation: “The time for talk is over. Get on the team.”
Altgeld’s long response was also printed on the front page of the Times. He cited local authority and denied the President’s power to send in troops whenever he felt like it.
General Strike?
The ultimate weapon for labor is “everyone goes on strike.” Not just one company or one industry: everyone. Debs thought this was the time for it, and if that a socialist revolution, so be it.
Here’s the Chicago Tribune for Saturday, July 7, reporting on a union meeting the day before:
TO TIE UP INDUSTRY.
BUILDING TRADES COUNCIL WILL JOIN THE STRIKE.
At a Meeting in Which All the Federated Orders Have Representation, It Is De-cided to Suspend Work Until the Demand for Arbitration Is Heeded—Effort Will Be Made to Secure the Cooperation of All Labor Organizations In a Cessation of Activity.
There was little friction in the session of the Building Trades Council last night. It was practically unanimous in favor of a strike. All the varied interests were represented. The session was prolonged until nearly 2 o’clock this morning. One faction desired a more emphatic expression than was contained in the minutes of the session given herewith. The more conservative element prevailed, and these declarations were agree upon:
The Building and Trades Council of the City Chicago, representing 25.000 organized workingmen in the Building Trades Council, in regular meeting assembled Friday evening, July 6, 1894. passed the following resolutions:
WHEREAS, The present conditions existing between the railroad employés and the employers is such as calls for the earnest consideration of all classes of organized labor; and
WHEREAS, It is apparent that capital is organized in conjunction with the said railroad corporations and the Pullman company, backed by the State and Federal militia, to defeat the just demands for arbitration ; therefore be it
Resolved, That this Building Trades Council declares in favor of a general cessation of all industries throughout the country, provided such demand for arbitration is not conceded. We, therefore, call on all organized labor throughout the country to immediately consider the advisability of such a step; and be it further |
Resolved, That this Building Trades Council calls upon the American Federation of Labor and all executive officers of all national and international labor organizations to take steps to centralize and strengthen such a movement to go into effect as soon as possible.
Testing the Troops’ Seriousness
Taunting police officers and troops is a dangerous game. “They won’t dare shoot us!” some rioters probably thought. Saturday, July 7 was the day when the answer came: we’ll do whatever it takes.
Here’s the Tribune for Sunday, July 8:
DAY OF BLOOD
Soldiers Shoot Down Rioters in Many Railroad Yards.
ALL FORCES ENGAGED.
Company C, Second Regiment, Chastises the Mob.
FOUR DEAD, MANY WOUNDED
Fatal Fight at Loomis and Forty-ninth Streets.
(A long list of the names of those killed and wounded)
Violence wasn’t limited to Chicago. Hammond, Indiana, just across the state line from Chicago, also saw troops firing at rioters. The Tribune for Monday July 8:
BLOOD AT HAMMOND.
BULLET IN ONE MAN’S HEART
THREE PEOPLE WOUNDED.
Strikers Try to Get Troops Into a Trap and Uncle Sam's Men Shoot to Kill
Sixteen Companies of Indiana Militia Rushing to the Scene
Illinois State Soldiers Will Cooperate
Protests from Hammond Citizens
Attempt Made to Burn a Railroad Bridge.
Ten days ago the strikers at Hammond, Ind., promised to allow trains to pass through their town without molestation. and in consideration of this pledge State troops ordered there by Gov. Matthews were sent home. Yesterday the rioters broke their word, and as a result United States soldiers shot down four persons, one of them being killed instantly.
(names of killed and wounded)
President Cleveland Acts
What would the President do? Maybe de-escalate the situation, call for dialog, get George Pullman on the line and say, “OK, Georgie Boy, this tough-guy stuff has gone on long enough. You’re meeting me here to talk with Debs in my office.” He’s the President. He can summon people and they come.
This is what Teddy Roosevelt would have done. He expanded the role of the Presidency, but he didn’t occupy that office yet.
Not Cleveland. He issued this on Sunday night:
PROCLAMATION OF THE PRESIDENT OF. THE UNITED STATES.
Whereas, By reason of unlawful obstructions, combination, and assemblages of persons, it has become impracticable, in the judgment of the President, to Enforce, by the ordinary course of Judicial proceedings, the law of the United States within the State of Illinois, and especially in the City of Chicago, within said State; and
Whereas, For the purpose of Enforcing the faithful execution of the laws of the United States and protecting its property and removing obstructions to the United States mails in the State and city aforesaid, the President has employed a part of the military forces of the United States:
Now, therefore, I, Grover Cleveland, President of the United States, do hereby admonish all good citizens and all persons who may be or may come within the city and State aforesaid, against aiding, countenancing, encouraging, or taking any part in such unlawful obstructions, combinations, and assemblages, and I hereby warn all persons engaged in, or in any way connected with, such unlawful obstructions, combinations, and assemblages to disperse and retire peaceably to their respective abodes on or before 12 o'clock noon on the 9th day of July int.
Those who disregard this warning and persist in taking part with a riotous mob in forcibly resisting and obstructing the execution of the laws of the United States, or interfering with the functions of the Government, or destroying or attempting to destroy the property belonging to the United States or under its protection, cannot be regarded otherwise than as public enemies. Troops employed against such a riotous mob will act with all the moderation and forbearance consistent with the accomplish of the desired end, but the stern necessities that confront them will not with certainty permit discrimination between guilty participants and Those who are mingled with them from curiosity and without criminal intent. The only safe course, therefore, for those not actually unlawfully participating is to abide at their homes, or at least not to be found in the neighborhood of riotous assemblages.
While there will be no hesitation or vacillation in the decisive treatment of the guilty, this warning is especially intended to protect and save the innocent.
If you’re a normal citizen, you might read this as, “stay at home or get shot. The troops’ aim isn’t perfect.”
Was This “Martial Law”?
Military Times gives an explanation of martial law. It has been declared in the United States numerous times, first by General Andrew Jackson in New Orleans in the War of 1812. The Brennan Center lists the many times that martial law has been used in the US.
Essentially, during martial law the military is in control, and Constitutional rights, particularly habeas corpus, are suspended. Abraham Lincoln used it during the Civil War, and FDR used it in Hawaii after Pearl Harbor.
Cleveland was a lawyer who knew very well what martial law was, and he was careful to say that the purpose of the troops was to enforce the laws, not replace them.
While the Posse Comitatus Act did prohibit employing US military for domestic law enforcement, there was an exception, the Insurrection Act, which read:
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That in all cases of insurrection, or obstruction to the laws, either of the United States, or of any individual state or territory, where it is lawful for the President of the United States to call forth the militia for the purpose of suppressing such insurrection, or of causing the laws to be duly executed, it shall be lawful for him to employ, for the same purposes, such part of the land or naval force of the United States, as shall be judged necessary, having first observed all the pre-requisites of the law in that respect.
While Cleveland didn’t explicitly invoke that act, his language is certainly reminiscent.
A New Week Begins
Monday morning, July 9. The week began with Cleveland and Debs both defiant.
Union leaders in Chicago had called for a general strike on Wednesday, July 11. The Knights of Labor had called their men out. But what would Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labor do? He refused to say, and called a meeting of the AFL’s officers for Thursday. Debs was left hanging and facing arrest.
Scabs
All strikes in this era revolved around whether management could hire replacement workers, often called “scabs.” Frequently the replacements were set upon by the strikers, management’s hired thugs tried to protect them, and violence ensued.
Unfortunately, this being a general Depression, there were plenty of desperate workers willing to risk it and take those jobs. The railroads all over the country were slowly getting their trains running again.
Next week: the strike fails and Debs goes to jail.